1 Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food for more than half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Latin America, making it a critical crop for global food security and livelihoods (Saqib et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2016; Mohanty et al., 2020). The traditional method of rice cultivation involves transplanting seedlings into flooded fields, which requires significant labor and water resources (Saqib et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2016). However, due to increasing labor costs and water scarcity, there has been a shift towards direct-seeded rice (DSR) systems in many regions (Singh et al., 2016; Mohanty et al., 2020). This method involves sowing seeds directly into the field, which can save water and labor but also presents new challenges, particularly in weed management (Singh et al., 2016; Mohanty et al., 2020).

Weedy rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea) is a major weed problem in rice cultivation, especially in DSR systems (Mispan et al., 2019; Ajaykumar et al., 2022). It is a complex of morphotypes that are phenotypically similar to cultivated rice but exhibit undesirable traits such as easy shattering, taller plants, and red grains, which can significantly reduce both yield and quality of the rice crop (Mispan et al., 2019; Ajaykumar et al., 2022). The conspecific nature of weedy rice with cultivated rice makes it difficult to control using conventional methods, as it can easily mimic the cultivated varieties (Mispan et al., 2019; Ajaykumar et al., 2022). The infestation of weedy rice can lead to substantial economic losses and poses a severe threat to the sustainability of rice production systems (Mispan et al., 2019; Ajaykumar et al., 2022).

Given the challenges associated with chemical control of weedy rice, including the evolution of herbicide resistance and environmental concerns, there is a growing emphasis on cultural weed management strategies (Mohanty et al., 2020). These strategies include practices such as crop rotation, use of competitive rice cultivars, appropriate water management, and mechanical weeding (Andres et al., 2012; Mispan et al., 2019; Mohanty et al., 2020). For instance, the use of the Clearfield® Rice Production System, which involves herbicide-tolerant rice varieties, has shown promise in managing weedy rice, although it also raises concerns about potential resistance and environmental impacts (Mispan et al., 2019). Integrating these cultural practices with other weed management approaches can provide a sustainable and effective solution to the weedy rice problem, ensuring long-term productivity and stability of rice cultivation systems (Andres et al., 2012; Mispan et al., 2019; Mohanty et al., 2020). The global significance of rice cultivation necessitates effective management of weedy rice to sustain productivity. Cultural weed management strategies play a crucial role in mitigating weedy rice infestation, offering a sustainable approach to address this pervasive issue in rice production.

This study aims to explore and evaluate various cultural weed management strategies for controlling weedy rice in rice cultivation. By synthesizing findings from multiple studies, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of effective cultural practices and their impact on weedy rice infestation and rice yield. The expected outcome is to identify sustainable and practical solutions that can be adopted by rice farmers to mitigate the challenges posed by weedy rice, thereby enhancing rice productivity and ensuring food security.

2 Weedy Rice: An Overview

2.1 Definition and characteristics of weedy rice

Weedy rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea) is a problematic weed in rice cultivation, closely related to cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.). It shares many morphological and physiological traits with cultivated rice, making it difficult to distinguish and manage. Weedy rice typically exhibits high seed shattering, dormancy, and a wide range of phenotypic plasticity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental conditions and management practices (Chauhan, 2013; Singh et al., 2016; Tiwari et al., 2023).

2.2 Distribution and prevalence in different rice-growing regions

Weedy rice is prevalent in many rice-growing regions worldwide, particularly in Asia, where it poses a significant threat to rice production. The shift from traditional transplanting to direct-seeded rice (DSR) systems has exacerbated the problem, as the absence of standing water during crop emergence favors weedy rice infestation. In Asia, countries like Sri Lanka, India, and other South Asian nations report high incidences of weedy rice, with significant infestations observed in both dry-seeded and wet-seeded rice systems (Chauhan, 2013; Singh et al., 2016; Shekhawat et al., 2020; Tiwari et al., 2023).

2.3 Economic and ecological impacts of weedy rice

The economic impact of weedy rice is substantial, leading to increased production costs and reduced farmer income due to yield losses and lower quality of harvested rice. Yield losses can range from 20% to 100%, depending on the severity of infestation and the management practices employed. Ecologically, weedy rice competes with cultivated rice for resources such as nutrients, water, and light, thereby reducing the overall productivity of rice fields. Additionally, the presence of weedy rice can lead to increased use of herbicides, contributing to environmental degradation and the development of herbicide-resistant weed populations (Chauhan, 2013; Dass et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016). By understanding the definition, distribution, and impacts of weedy rice, researchers and farmers can develop and implement more effective cultural weed management strategies to mitigate its adverse effects on rice cultivation.

3 Traditional vs. Direct-Seeded Rice Systems

3.1 Comparison of rice systems

Traditional rice cultivation typically involves transplanting seedlings from a nursery into flooded fields, known as puddled transplanted rice (PTR). This method has been the cornerstone of rice farming for centuries, providing effective weed control through water submersion and ensuring high yields. In contrast, direct-seeded rice (DSR) involves sowing seeds directly into the field, either in dry or wet conditions, which can significantly reduce labor and water requirements (Dass et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016; Shekhawat et al., 2020).

3.2 Challenges of DSR

Despite its advantages, DSR faces several challenges, primarily due to weed infestation. The absence of standing water at crop emergence in DSR allows weeds to germinate and grow simultaneously with rice, leading to severe competition for resources. This can result in yield losses ranging from 50% to 80% (Chauhan, 2013; Dass et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016; Shekhawat et al., 2020). Additionally, the shift towards DSR has led to the emergence of herbicide-resistant weed species, complicating weed management further (Mahajan and Chauhan, 2013; Banik et al., 2020; Raj et al., 2022). The lack of suitable weed-competitive rice cultivars and the need for integrated weed management strategies are significant hurdles that need to be addressed for the successful adoption of DSR (Mahajan and Chauhan, 2013; Hossain et al., 2016).

3.3 Benefits of traditional practices

Traditional rice cultivation methods, such as PTR, offer several benefits that help mitigate weed problems. The continuous flooding of fields suppresses weed growth, reducing the need for herbicides and manual weeding. This method also helps in maintaining soil structure and fertility, leading to stable and high yields (Chauhan, 2013; Dass et al., 2016; Raj et al., 2022). Moreover, traditional practices are less prone to the development of herbicide-resistant weed species, as the water submersion acts as a natural weed suppressant (Singh et al., 2016; Banik et al., 2020). The use of clean seeds, thorough land preparation, and crop rotation in traditional systems further enhance weed control and overall crop health (Chauhan, 2013; Sen et al., 2021). While DSR offers significant resource savings and environmental benefits, it also presents substantial challenges, particularly in weed management. Traditional rice cultivation methods continue to provide effective weed control and stable yields, highlighting the need for integrated approaches to manage weeds in DSR systems effectively.

4 Cultural Weed Management Strategies

4.1 Definition and principles

Cultural weed management strategies involve the use of agronomic practices to suppress weed growth and reduce weed seed banks in the soil. These methods focus on creating conditions that favor the growth of the desired crop while disadvantaging weeds. Key principles include crop rotation, use of clean seeds, proper water management, and timely planting. These strategies aim to reduce reliance on chemical herbicides, thereby minimizing environmental impact and the risk of developing herbicide-resistant weed populations (Chauhan, 2013; Sen et al., 2021).

4.2 Benefits over chemical methods

Cultural weed management offers several advantages over chemical methods. Firstly, it reduces the environmental footprint associated with herbicide use, including soil and water pollution and harm to non-target organisms (Dass et al., 2016). Secondly, it helps in managing herbicide-resistant weed populations, which are becoming increasingly problematic due to the over-reliance on chemical herbicides (Figure 1) (Chauhan, 2013; Raj et al., 2022; Pervaiz et al., 2023). Additionally, cultural practices can improve soil health and biodiversity, leading to more sustainable agricultural systems (Banik et al., 2020). For instance, practices such as crop rotation and the use of allelopathic rice varieties can significantly reduce weed pressure without the need for chemical inputs.

4.3 Implementation challenges

Despite their benefits, cultural weed management strategies face several implementation challenges. One major challenge is the need for precise timing and coordination of various practices, which can be labor-intensive and require detailed knowledge of local weed ecology. Additionally, the effectiveness of these strategies can be variable and may not provide complete weed control, necessitating the integration with other methods such as mechanical or low-dose chemical controls (Mahajan and Chauhan, 2013; Hossain et al., 2016). There is also a need for more research and extension services to educate farmers on the best practices and benefits of cultural weed management (Hossain et al., 2016). For example, the adoption of direct-seeded rice systems, which can save water and labor, also increases the risk of weed infestation, highlighting the need for integrated weed management approaches (Zhang et al., 2021).

5 Key Cultural Practices for Weedy Rice Management

5.1 Use of clean seeds and machinery

The use of clean seeds and machinery is a fundamental practice in managing weedy rice. Ensuring that seeds are free from weed seeds and that machinery is thoroughly cleaned before use can significantly reduce the introduction and spread of weedy rice. This practice is particularly crucial in direct-seeded rice systems where the absence of standing water at crop emergence can exacerbate weedy rice problems (Chauhan, 2013).

5.2 Stale seedbed technique

The stale seedbed technique involves preparing the seedbed well in advance of planting and allowing weed seeds to germinate. These weeds are then eliminated using non-selective herbicides or shallow tillage before the crop is sown. This method has been shown to significantly reduce the weed seed bank and subsequent weed infestation in rice fields (Dass et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2021; Dilipkumar et al., 2022). For instance, the integration of stale seedbed techniques with post-sowing herbicides has been effective in controlling complex weed flora in dry-seeded rice (Zhang et al., 2021).

Thorough land preparation, including practices such as plowing, harrowing, and leveling, can help in reducing weedy rice infestation by burying weed seeds deeper into the soil, where they are less likely to germinate. Proper land preparation also ensures a uniform seedbed, which can enhance the effectiveness of other weed management practices (Chauhan, 2013; Ceseski et al., 2022).

5.3 Thorough land preparation

Crop rotation and diversification are effective strategies for managing weedy rice by disrupting the weed's life cycle. Rotating rice with non-host crops can reduce the weed seed bank and prevent the buildup of weedy rice populations. For example, integrating different rice establishment methods and rotating with other crops can help manage weedy rice more effectively (Chauhan, 2013; Zhang et al., 2021; Ceseski et al., 2022).

Increasing the seeding rate and using row seeding can enhance crop competition against weedy rice. Higher seeding rates can lead to quicker canopy closure, which suppresses weed growth by reducing light availability to the weeds. Narrow row spacing has also been found to reduce weed biomass and improve rice yield (Dass et al., 2016; Ceseski et al., 2022).

5.4 Crop rotation and diversification

Flooding is a traditional method used in rice cultivation to suppress weed growth, including weedy rice. Maintaining a water layer in the field can inhibit the germination and growth of many weed species. This practice is particularly effective in wet-seeded rice systems where standing water can be maintained during the early stages of crop growth (Chauhan, 2013; Dilipkumar et al., 2022).

The use of allelopathic rice varieties, which release biochemicals that inhibit the growth of surrounding weeds, is an emerging strategy in weedy rice management. These varieties can provide a natural means of weed suppression, reducing the reliance on chemical herbicides and contributing to sustainable weed management practices (Dass et al., 2016; Ceseski et al., 2022). By integrating these cultural practices, rice farmers can effectively manage weedy rice, reduce herbicide use, and promote sustainable rice production.

6 Integrative Weed Management Approaches

6.1 Combining cultural practices with mechanical methods

Integrating cultural practices with mechanical methods has shown significant promise in managing weed infestations in rice cultivation. Cultural practices such as the use of competitive rice cultivars, high seeding rates, and narrow row spacing can enhance the crop's ability to suppress weeds. For instance, increasing crop density and using competitive genotypes have been found to reduce weed biomass significantly (Figure 1) (Zhang et al., 2021; Tiwari et al., 2023). Mechanical methods, such as harrowing and the use of conoweeders, can further enhance weed control when combined with these cultural practices. Studies have demonstrated that combining high crop density with post-emergence harrowing can increase grain yield by 25% and reduce weed biomass by 71% compared to standard practices (Kong et al., 2008). Additionally, the use of mechanical weeding tools like conoweeders has been effective in reducing weed infestations when used in conjunction with cultural practices (Benaragama and Shirtliffe, 2013).

6.2 Combining cultural practices with chemical methods

The integration of cultural practices with chemical methods can also be an effective strategy for managing weeds in rice cultivation. Cultural practices such as the use of allelopathic rice varieties, proper planting patterns, and optimal flooding depth can enhance the effectiveness of herbicides. For example, allelopathic rice varieties combined with low-dose herbicide applications have been shown to completely control weed emergence and growth without reducing grain yield (Shekhawat et al., 2020). Similarly, the use of competitive rice cultivars and high seeding rates can reduce the need for herbicides by up to 50% (Tiwari et al., 2023). In direct-seeded rice systems, the application of herbicides like bispyribac sodium followed by mechanical weeding has been found to be highly effective in controlling both grassy and broadleaved weeds, resulting in higher grain yields and economic returns (Benaragama and Shirtliffe, 2013).

6.3 Examples of successful integrative approaches

Several successful integrative weed management approaches have been documented in rice cultivation. One notable example is the use of a combination of cultural, mechanical, and chemical methods in direct-seeded rice systems. In a study conducted in the Kymore Plateau and Satpura Hills, the integration of bispyribac sodium application with the use of a conoweeder significantly reduced weed infestations and increased grain yield and economic returns (Benaragama and Shirtliffe, 2013). Another example is the use of allelopathic rice varieties combined with cultural management options and low-dose herbicide applications, which effectively controlled paddy field weeds without yield penalties (Shekhawat et al., 2020). Additionally, the integration of ecological methods such as cleaning irrigation water and removing floating weed seeds with conventional herbicide applications has been shown to deplete the weed seed bank and reduce herbicide use by half in a rice-wheat cropping system (Jabran and Chauhan, 2015). These integrative approaches highlight the importance of combining multiple weed management strategies to achieve sustainable and effective weed control in rice cultivation. By leveraging the strengths of cultural, mechanical, and chemical methods, farmers can reduce weed infestations, minimize herbicide use, and enhance crop productivity and profitability.

7 Case Study

7.1 Detailed examination of a specific region or farm implementing cultural weed management strategies

A case study was conducted in Sri Lanka to evaluate the effectiveness of different rice establishment methods on weed infestation by weedy rice and the yield of cultivated rice grains. The study was carried out in farmers' fields across three locations: Atala, Sammanthurai, and Girithale villages, over two consecutive seasons. The establishment methods tested included farmers' practice, random broadcasting, line sowing, seedling broadcasting, and transplanted rice (Kim et al., 2000).

A study by Singh et al. (2018) demonstrated that a herbicide treatment combining pendimethalin 38.7% CS and ethoxysulfuron sodium was highly effective in controlling weed populations and enhancing the yield of transplanted rice crops. This treatment achieved the highest plant height (101.82 cm) and the highest yield per hectare (tons), indicating its superior effectiveness compared to other herbicides tested in the study.

Additionally, Mahbub et al. (2017) evaluated the efficacy of various herbicides, including pyrithiobac-sodium and a wettable powder mixture of metsulfuron-methyl + chlorimuron-ethyl. They compared these treatments with weed-free plots and untreated controls. Their survey, conducted during the Aman and Boro seasons of 2014-2015, identified two grasses, two sedges, and three broadleaf weeds during the Aman season, and two grasses, two sedges, and two broadleaf weeds during the Boro season. The predominant weeds in both seasons included Cyperus spp., Echinochloa crus-galli, Sphenoclea zeylanica, and Monochoria vaginalis. Among the herbicide treatments, metsulfuron-methyl + 2% chlorimuron-ethyl wettable powder showed promising results (Figure 2) (Pervaiz et al., 2023). These findings indicate that specific herbicide combinations can effectively control weed populations and improve rice yields, highlighting the importance of targeted weed management strategies in rice cultivation.

7.2 Analysis of the outcomes

The results of the study indicated significant differences in weedy rice infestation and rice yield among the different establishment methods. The farmers' practice had the highest number of weedy rice panicles, ranging from 60 to 80 panicles per square meter. In contrast, the transplanted rice method had the lowest number of weedy rice panicles, ranging from 1.3 to 3.0 panicles per square meter. The random broadcast method reduced weedy rice seed production by 29%~41% compared to the farmers' practice, while the seedling broadcast method reduced it by 71%~87%, and the transplanted rice method by 95%~98% (Kim et al., 2000).

In terms of rice yield, the farmers' practice resulted in the lowest grain yield, ranging from 5.1 to 6.7 tons per hectare. The random broadcast and row seeding methods increased rice yield by up to 21% and 31%, respectively, compared to the farmers' practice. The seedling broadcast method increased rice yield by 27%~49%, and the transplanted rice method achieved the highest yield, ranging from 7.5 to 9.1 tons per hectare (Kim et al., 2000).

7.3 Lessons learned from the case study

Recent research provides several important lessons for managing weedy rice. This method was the most effective in reducing weedy rice infestation and increasing rice yield. The significant reduction in weedy rice panicles and the highest grain yield achieved suggest that transplanting rice can be a highly effective cultural practice for managing weedy rice (Kim et al., 2000). The random broadcast method, which involved the use of clean rice seeds, significantly reduced weedy rice seed production. This highlights the importance of using clean seeds to prevent the spread of weedy rice (Kim et al., 2000). These methods also showed considerable reductions in weedy rice infestation and increases in rice yield. They can be viable alternatives to the farmers' practice, especially in areas where transplanting is not feasible (Kim et al., 2000). The study underscores the importance of integrating multiple cultural practices, such as the use of clean seeds, different planting methods, and proper field management, to effectively manage weedy rice and enhance rice yield (Kim et al., 2000). By adopting these cultural weed management strategies, farmers can reduce the infestation of weedy rice, improve rice yield, and potentially reduce the reliance on chemical herbicides, thereby promoting more sustainable rice cultivation practices.

8 Challenges and Limitations

8.1 Practical challenges in adopting cultural weed management strategies

Adopting cultural weed management strategies in rice cultivation presents several practical challenges. One significant issue is the labor-intensive nature of these practices. For instance, methods such as hand weeding and the use of mechanical tools like conoweeders require substantial manual effort, which can be a deterrent for farmers, especially in regions facing labor shortages (Kim et al., 2000; Dass et al., 2016). Additionally, the transition from traditional transplanting to direct-seeded rice (DSR) systems, which is often recommended for better weed management, can be difficult due to the need for new skills and knowledge among farmers (Shekhawat et al., 2020). The effectiveness of cultural practices such as crop rotation, stale seedbed preparation, and the use of allelopathic rice varieties also depends heavily on precise timing and local environmental conditions, which can vary widely and be unpredictable (Kong et al., 2008).

8.2 Limitations and potential drawbacks of these practices

Cultural weed management strategies, while beneficial, have inherent limitations and potential drawbacks. One major limitation is their partial effectiveness; these methods often do not completely eliminate weed infestations but rather reduce them to manageable levels. For example, higher seeding rates and narrow row spacing can reduce weed biomass but may not fully control all weed species (Dass et al., 2016). Additionally, practices like flooding and delayed seeding can be effective but are not always feasible due to water availability and climatic conditions (Tiwari et al., 2023). The use of allelopathic rice varieties, although promising, may not be universally effective against all weed species and can sometimes lead to reduced crop yields if not managed properly (Kong et al., 2008). Furthermore, the integration of these practices with low-dose herbicide applications, while reducing chemical use, still involves some reliance on herbicides, which may not be acceptable to all farmers or consumers (Kong et al., 2008; Tiwari et al., 2023).

8.3 Addressing the challenges

To address these challenges, a multifaceted approach is necessary. Education and training programs for farmers can help in the adoption of new techniques and improve the effectiveness of cultural practices. Extension services can play a crucial role in disseminating knowledge about the timing and implementation of these strategies (Dass et al., 2016). Research and development should focus on improving the efficacy of cultural practices and developing new weed-competitive rice varieties that are better suited to local conditions (Singh et al., 2016; Raj et al., 2022). Additionally, policy support in the form of subsidies for mechanical tools and incentives for adopting sustainable practices can encourage farmers to transition to these methods (Tiwari et al., 2023). Collaborative efforts between researchers, policymakers, and farmers are essential to create integrated weed management systems that are both effective and sustainable (Singh et al., 2016; Raj et al., 2022). By addressing these practical challenges and limitations through education, research, and policy support, the adoption of cultural weed management strategies in rice cultivation can be enhanced, leading to reduced weed infestations and more sustainable agricultural practices.

9 Future Directions and Research Needs

9.1 Areas for further research in cultural weed management

Cultural weed management strategies have shown promise in reducing weedy rice infestations, but there are several areas where further research is needed to optimize these methods. One key area is the development and testing of new rice cultivars with enhanced weed-competitive traits, such as allelopathy and rapid early growth, which can naturally suppress weed growth (Tiwari et al., 2023). Additionally, more research is needed to understand the long-term impacts of crop rotation and different rice establishment methods on weed seed banks and overall weed pressure (Raj et al., 2022). Investigating the integration of multiple cultural practices, such as the use of clean seeds, stale seedbed techniques, and precise water management, can also provide insights into more effective weed control strategies (Singh et al., 2016).

9.2 Innovations and technological advancements to support these strategies

Technological advancements can play a crucial role in enhancing cultural weed management strategies. The development of precision agriculture tools, such as drones and sensors, can help in the early detection and mapping of weed infestations, allowing for targeted interventions (Kong et al., 2008). Innovations in machinery, such as improved seed drills and mechanical weeders, can facilitate the adoption of practices like high seeding rates and narrow row spacing, which have been shown to reduce weed biomass (Busi et al., 2017). Additionally, the use of herbicide safeners, which protect rice plants from herbicide damage while allowing for the selective control of weedy rice, represents a promising area of innovation (Tiwari et al., 2023). Research into the combination of low-dose herbicide applications with cultural practices, such as the use of allelopathic rice varieties, can further reduce the reliance on chemical controls and minimize environmental impacts (Kathiresan and Vishnudevi, 2021).

9.3 Policy and support mechanisms

Effective policy and support mechanisms are essential to promote the adoption of cultural weed management strategies. Governments and agricultural organizations should provide incentives for farmers to adopt integrated weed management practices, including subsidies for purchasing precision agriculture tools and machinery (Tiwari et al., 2023). Extension services should be strengthened to provide farmers with the necessary knowledge and training on cultural weed management techniques and the benefits of crop rotation and clean seed use (Busi et al., 2017). Additionally, policies that encourage research and development in sustainable agriculture practices, including the breeding of weed-competitive rice cultivars and the development of eco-friendly herbicides, can support the long-term success of cultural weed management strategies (Busi et al., 2017). Collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and farmers is crucial to ensure that these strategies are practical, effective, and widely adopted. By addressing these research needs, leveraging technological advancements, and implementing supportive policies, the agricultural community can make significant strides in reducing the infestation of weedy rice and promoting sustainable rice cultivation practices.

10 Concluding Remarks

Cultural weed management strategies play a crucial role in mitigating the infestation of weedy rice in rice cultivation. Various studies have highlighted the effectiveness of different cultural practices. Using clean seeds and machinery can significantly reduce the introduction of weedy rice seeds into the field. This method, combined with herbicides like paraquat or glyphosate, has shown to reduce weed density by up to 53%. Thorough land preparation and rotating different rice establishment methods can help manage weedy rice effectively. Higher seeding rates and narrow row spacing have been found to reduce weed biomass significantly without affecting yield. Integrating allelopathic rice varieties with cultural management options can enhance weed suppression and reduce herbicide use. Proper water management, including flooding, can reduce weedy rice germination and growth. Combining cultural, mechanical, and chemical methods can sustainably reduce weed infestation and herbicide use.

Cultural weed management strategies are essential for sustainable rice cultivation, especially in the context of increasing herbicide resistance and environmental concerns. These strategies not only help in reducing the infestation of weedy rice but also contribute to the overall sustainability of rice farming by minimizing the reliance on chemical herbicides. The integration of various cultural practices, such as the use of clean seeds, proper land preparation, crop rotation, and the adoption of allelopathic rice varieties, can create a more resilient and productive rice cultivation system.

To ensure the long-term sustainability of rice cultivation, it is imperative for researchers, policymakers, and farmers to collaborate and promote the adoption of cultural weed management strategies. Future research should focus on optimizing these practices and developing region-specific guidelines to maximize their effectiveness. Policymakers should support initiatives that encourage the use of sustainable weed management practices, and farmers should be educated and incentivized to implement these strategies in their fields. By working together, we can reduce the impact of weedy rice and enhance the sustainability of rice production systems worldwide.

Acknowledgments

Author extends sincere thanks to two anonymous peer reviewers for their thorough review of this study and for their valuable suggestions for improvement.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

Author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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